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PLEASE REMOVE --> -<!-- preceding code added by server. PLEASE REMOVE --> -<h2>Assembly In One Step</h2> -<i>RTK, last update: 23-Jul-97</i><p> - -A brief guide to programming the 6502 in assembly language. It will -introduce the 6502 architecture, addressing modes, and instruction set. -No prior assembly language programming is assumed, however it is assumed -that you are somewhat familiar with hexadecimal numbers. Programming -examples are given at the end. Much of this material -comes from <i>6502 Software Design</i> by Leo Scanlon, Blacksburg, 1980. -</p><p> - -</p><hr> -<p></p><pre> -The 6502 Architecture ---------------------- - - The 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor that follows the memory oriented - design philosophy of the Motorola 6800. Several engineers left - Motorola and formed MOS Technology which introduced the 6502 in 1975. - The 6502 gained in popularity because of it's low price and became the - heart of several early personal computers including the Apple II, - Commodore 64, and Atari 400 and 800. - - - Simplicity is key - ----------------- - - The 6502 handles data in its registers, each of which holds one byte - (8-bits) of data. There are a total of three general use and two special - purpose registers: - - - accumulator (A) - Handles all arithmetic and logic. The real heart - of the system. - - X and Y - General purpose registers with limited abilities. - - S - Stack pointer. - - P - Processor status. Holds the result of tests - and flags. - - - Stack Pointer - ------------- - - When the microprocessor executes a JSR (Jump to SubRoutine) - instruction it needs to know where to return when finished. The 6502 - keeps this information in low memory from $0100 to $01FF and uses the - stack pointer as an offset. The stack grows down from $01FF and makes - it possible to nest subroutines up to 128 levels deep. Not a problem - in most cases. - - - Processor Status - ---------------- - - The processor status register is not directly accessible by any 6502 - instruction. Instead, there exist numerous instructions that test the - bits of the processor status register. The flags within the register - are: - - - bit -> 7 0 - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | N | V | | B | D | I | Z | C | <-- flag, 0/1 = reset/set - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - - N = NEGATIVE. Set if bit 7 of the accumulator is set. - - V = OVERFLOW. Set if the addition of two like-signed numbers or the - subtraction of two unlike-signed numbers produces a result - greater than +127 or less than -128. - - B = BRK COMMAND. Set if an interrupt caused by a BRK, reset if - caused by an external interrupt. - - D = DECIMAL MODE. Set if decimal mode active. - - I = IRQ DISABLE. Set if maskable interrupts are disabled. - - Z = ZERO. Set if the result of the last operation (load/inc/dec/ - add/sub) was zero. - - C = CARRY. Set if the add produced a carry, or if the subtraction - produced a borrow. Also holds bits after a logical shift. - - - Accumulator - ----------- - - The majority of the 6502's business makes use of the accumulator. All - addition and subtraction is done in the accumulator. It also handles - the majority of the logical comparisons (is A > B ?) and logical bit - shifts. - - - X and Y - ------- - - These are index registers often used to hold offsets to memory - locations. They can also be used for holding needed values. Much of - their use lies in supporting some of the addressing modes. - - - -Addressing Modes ----------------- - - The 6502 has 13 addressing modes, or ways of accessing memory. The 65C02 - introduces two additional modes. - - They are: - - - +---------------------+--------------------------+ - | mode | assembler format | - +=====================+==========================+ - | Immediate | #aa | - | Absolute | aaaa | - | Zero Page | aa | Note: - | Implied | | - | Indirect Absolute | (aaaa) | aa = 2 hex digits - | Absolute Indexed,X | aaaa,X | as $FF - | Absolute Indexed,Y | aaaa,Y | - | Zero Page Indexed,X | aa,X | aaaa = 4 hex - | Zero Page Indexed,Y | aa,Y | digits as - | Indexed Indirect | (aa,X) | $FFFF - | Indirect Indexed | (aa),Y | - | Relative | aaaa | Can also be - | Accumulator | A | assembler labels - +---------------------+--------------------------+ - - (Table 2-3. _6502 Software Design_, Scanlon, 1980) - - - Immediate Addressing - -------------------- - - The value given is a number to be used immediately by the - instruction. For example, LDA #$99 loads the value $99 into the - accumulator. - - - Absolute Addressing - ------------------- - - The value given is the address (16-bits) of a memory location that - contains the 8-bit value to be used. For example, STA $3E32 stores - the present value of the accumulator in memory location $3E32. - - - Zero Page Addressing - -------------------- - - The first 256 memory locations ($0000-00FF) are called "zero page". The - next 256 instructions ($0100-01FF) are page 1, etc. Instructions - making use of the zero page save memory by not using an extra $00 to - indicate the high part of the address. For example, - - LDA $0023 -- works but uses an extra byte - LDA $23 -- the zero page address - - - Implied Addressing - ------------------ - - Many instructions are only one byte in length and do not reference - memory. These are said to be using implied addressing. For example, - - CLC -- Clear the carry flag - DEX -- Decrement the X register by one - TYA -- Transfer the Y register to the accumulator - - - Indirect Absolute Addressing - ---------------------------- - - Only used by JMP (JuMP). It takes the given address and uses it as a - pointer to the low part of a 16-bit address in memory, then jumps to - that address. For example, - - JMP ($2345) -- jump to the address in $2345 low and $2346 high - - So if $2345 contains $EA and $2346 contains $12 then the next - instruction executed is the one stored at $12EA. Remember, the - 6502 puts its addresses in low/high format. - - - Absolute Indexed Addressing - --------------------------- - - The final address is found by taking the given address as a base and - adding the current value of the X or Y register to it as an offset. So, - - LDA $F453,X where X contains 3 - - Load the accumulator with the contents of address $F453 + 3 = $F456. - - - Zero Page Indexed Addressing - ---------------------------- - - Same as Absolute Indexed but the given address is in the zero page - thereby saving a byte of memory. - - - Indexed Indirect Addressing - --------------------------- - - Find the 16-bit address starting at the given location plus the - current X register. The value is the contents of that address. For - example, - - LDA ($B4,X) where X contains 6 - - gives an address of $B4 + 6 = $BA. If $BA and $BB contain $12 and - $EE respectively, then the final address is $EE12. The value at - location $EE12 is put in the accumulator. - - - Indirect Indexed Addressing - --------------------------- - - Find the 16-bit address contained in the given location ( and the one - following). Add to that address the contents of the Y register. - Fetch the value stored at that address. For example, - - LDA ($B4),Y where Y contains 6 - - If $B4 contains $EE and $B5 contains $12 then the value at memory - location $12EE + Y (6) = $12F4 is fetched and put in the accumulator. - - - Relative Addressing - ------------------- - - The 6502 branch instructions use relative addressing. The next byte - is a signed offset from the current address, and the net sum is the - address of the next instruction executed. For example, - - BNE $7F (branch on zero flag reset) - - will add 127 to the current program counter (address to execute) and - start executing the instruction at that address. SImilarly, - - BEQ $F9 (branch on zero flag set) - - will add a -7 to the current program counter and start execution at - the new program counter address. - - Remember, if one treats the highest bit (bit 7) of a byte as a sign (0 - = positive, 1 = negative) then it is possible to have numbers in the - range -128 ($80) to +127 (7F). So, if the high bit is set, i.e. the - number is > $7F, it is a negative branch. How far is the branch? If - the value is < $80 (positive) it is simply that many bytes. If the - value is > $7F (negative) then it is the 2's compliment of the given - value in the negative direction. - - 2's compilment - -------------- - - The 2's compilment of a number is found by switching all the bits - from 0 -> 1 and 1 -> 0, then adding 1. So, - - $FF = 1111 1111 <-- original - 0000 0000 <-- 1's compliment - + 1 - --------- - 0000 0001 <-- 2's compliment, therefore $FF = -1 - - Note that QForth uses this for numbers greater than 32768 so that - 65535 = -1 and 32768 = -32768. - - In practice, the assembly language programmer uses a label and the - assembler takes care of the actual computation. Note that branches - can only be to addresses within -128 to +127 bytes from the present - address. The 6502 does not allow branches to an absolute address. - - - Accumulator Addressing - ---------------------- - - Like implied addressing, the object of the instruction is the - accumulator and need not be specified. - - - -The 6502 Instruction Set ------------------------- - - There are 56 instructions in the 6502, and more in the 65C02. Many - instructions make use of more than one addressing mode and each - instruction/addressing mode combination has a particular hexadecimal - opcode that specifies it exactly. So, - - A9 = LDA #$aa Immediate addressing mode load of accumulator - AD = LDA $aaaa Absolute addressing mode load of accumulator - etc. - - - Some 6502 instructions make use of bitwise logic. This includes AND, - OR, and EOR (Exclusive-OR). The tables below illustrate the effects - of these operations: - - AND 1 1 -> 1 "both" - 1 0 -> 0 - 0 1 -> 0 - 0 0 -> 0 - - OR 1 1 -> 1 "either one or both" - 1 0 -> 1 - 0 1 -> 1 - 0 0 -> 0 - - EOR 1 1 -> 0 "one or the other but not both" - 1 0 -> 1 - 0 1 -> 1 - 0 0 -> 0 - - Therefore, $FF AND $0F = $0F since, - - 1111 1111 - and 0000 1111 - --------- - 0000 1111 = $0F - - - AND is useful for masking bits. For example, to mask the high order - bits of a value AND with $0F: - - $36 AND $0F = $06 - - OR is useful for setting a particular bit: - - $80 OR $08 = $88 - - since 1000 0000 ($80) - 0000 1000 ($08) - or --------- - 1000 1000 ($88) - - EOR is useful for flipping bits: - - $AA EOR $FF = $55 - - since 1010 1010 ($AA) - 1111 1111 ($FF) - eor --------- - 0101 0101 ($55) - - - Other 6502 instructions shift bits to the right or the left or rotate - them right or left. Note that shifting to the left by one bit is the - same as multipling by 2 and that shifting right by one bit is the same - as dividing by 2. - - - The 6502 instructions fall naturally into 10 groups with two odd-ball - instructions NOP and BRK: - - Load and Store Instructions - Arithmetic Instructions - Increment and Decrement Instructions - Logical Instructions - Jump, Branch, Compare and Test Bits Instructions - Shift and Rotate Instructions - Transfer Instructions - Stack Instructions - Subroutine Instructions - Set/Reset Instructions - NOP/BRK Instructions - - - - Load and Store Instructions - =========================== - - LDA - LoaD the Accumulator - LDX - LoaD the X register - LDY - LoaD the Y register - - STA - STore the Accumulator - STX - STore the X register - STY - STore the Y register - - Microprocessors spend much of their time moving stuff around in - memory. Data from one location is loaded into a register and stored - in another location, often with something added or subtracted in the - process. Memory can be loaded directly into the A, X, and Y registers - but as usual, the accumulator has more addressing modes available. - - If the high bit (left most, bit 7) is set when loaded the N flag on - the processor status register is set. If the loaded value is zero the - Z flag is set. - - - Arithmetic Instructions - ======================= - - ADC - ADd to accumulator with Carry - SBC - SuBtract from accumulator with Carry - - The 6502 has two arithmetic modes, binary and decimal. Both addition - and subtraction implement the carry flag to track carries and borrows - thereby making multibyte arithmetic simple. Note that in the case of - subtraction it is necessary to SET the carry flag as it is the opposite - of the carry that is subtracted. - - Addition should follow this form: - - CLC - ADC ... - . - . - ADC ... - . - . - . - - Clear the carry flag, and perform all the additions. The carry - between additions will be handled in the carry flag. Add from low - byte to high byte. Symbolically, the net effect of an ADC instruction is: - - A + M + C --> A - - - Subtraction follows the same format: - - SEC - SBC ... - . - . - SBC ... - . - . - . - - In this case set the carry flag first and then do the subtractions. - Symbolically, - - A - M - ~C --> A , where ~C is the opposite of C - - - Ex.1 - ---- - A 16-bit addition routine. $20,$21 + $22,$23 = $24,$25 - - CLC clear the carry - LDA $20 get the low byte of the first number - ADC $22 add to it the low byte of the second - STA $24 store in the low byte of the result - LDA $21 get the high byte of the first number - ADC $23 add to it the high byte of the second, plus carry - STA $25 store in high byte of the result - - ... on exit the carry will be set if the result could not be - contained in 16-bit number. - - Ex.2 - ---- - A 16-bit subtraction routine. $20,$21 - $22,$23 = $24,$25 - - SEC clear the carry - LDA $20 get the low byte of the first number - SBC $22 add to it the low byte of the second - STA $24 store in the low byte of the result - LDA $21 get the high byte of the first number - SBC $23 add to it the high byte of the second, plus carry - STA $25 store in high byte of the result - - ... on exit the carry will be set if the result produced a - borrow - - Aside from the carry flag, arithmetic instructions also affect the N, - Z, and V flags as follows: - - Z = 1 if result was zero, 0 otherwise - N = 1 if bit 7 of the result is 1, 0 otherwise - V = 1 if bit 7 of the accumulator was changed, a sign change - - - - Increment and Decrement Instructions - ==================================== - - INC - INCrement memory by one - INX - INcrement X by one - INY - INcrement Y by one - - DEC - DECrement memory by one - DEX - DEcrement X by one - DEY - DEcrement Y by one - - The 6502 has instructions for incrementing/decrementing the index - registers and memory. Note that it does not have instructions for - incrementing/decrementing the accumulator. This oversight was - rectified in the 65C02 which added INA and DEA instructions. The - index register instructions are implied mode for obvious reasons while - the INC and DEC instructions use a number of addressing modes. - - All inc/dec instructions have alter the processor status flags in the - following way: - - Z = 1 if the result is zero, 0 otherwise - N = 1 if bit 7 is 1, 0 otherwise - - - - Logical Instructions - ==================== - - AND - AND memory with accumulator - ORA - OR memory with Accumulator - EOR - Exclusive-OR memory with Accumulator - - These instructions perform a bitwise binary operation according to the - tables given above. They set the Z flag if the net result is zero and - set the N flag if bit 7 of the result is set. - - - - Jump, Branch, Compare, and Test Bits - ==================================== - - JMP - JuMP to another location (GOTO) - - BCC - Branch on Carry Clear, C = 0 - BCS - Branch on Carry Set, C = 1 - BEQ - Branch on EQual to zero, Z = 1 - BNE - Branch on Not Equal to zero, Z = 0 - BMI - Branch on MInus, N = 1 - BPL - Branch on PLus, N = 0 - BVS - Branch on oVerflow Set, V = 1 - BVC - Branch on oVerflow Clear, V = 0 - - CMP - CoMPare memory and accumulator - CPX - ComPare memory and X - CPY - ComPare memory and Y - - BIT - test BITs - - This large group includes all instructions that alter the flow of the - program or perform a comparison of values or bits. - - JMP simply sets the program counter (PC) to the address given. - Execution proceeds from the new address. The branch instructions are - relative jumps. They cause a branch to a new address that is either - 127 bytes beyond the current PC or 128 bytes before the current PC. - Code that only uses branch instructions is relocatable and can be run - anywhere in memory. - - The three compare instructions are used to set processor status bits. - After the comparison one frequently branches to a new place in the - program based on the settings of the status register. The - relationship between the compared values and the status bits is, - - - +-------------------------+---------------------+ - | | N Z C | - +-------------------------+---------------------+ - | A, X, or Y < Memory | 1 0 0 | - | A, X, or Y = Memory | 0 1 1 | - | A, X, or Y > Memory | 0 0 1 | - +-----------------------------------------------+ - - - The BIT instruction tests bits in memory with the accumulator but - changes neither. Only processor status flags are set. The contents - of the specified memory location are logically ANDed with the - accumulator, then the status bits are set such that, - - * N receives the initial, un-ANDed value of memory bit 7. - * V receives the initial, un-ANDed value of memory bit 6. - * Z is set if the result of the AND is zero, otherwise reset. - - So, if $23 contained $7F and the accumulator contained $80 a BIT $23 - instruction would result in the V and Z flags being set and N reset since - bit 7 of $7F is 0, bit 6 of $7F is 1, and $7F AND $80 = 0. - - - - Shift and Rotate Instructions - ============================= - - ASL - Accumulator Shift Left - LSR - Logical Shift Right - ROL - ROtate Left - ROR - ROtate Right - - Use these instructions to move things around in the accumulator or - memory. The net effects are (where C is the carry flag): - - - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - C <- |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| <- 0 ASL - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - 0 -> |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| -> C LSR - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - C <- |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| <- C ROL - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - C -> |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| -> C ROR - +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - - - Z is set if the result it zero. N is set if bit 7 is 1. It is - always reset on LSR. Remember that ASL A is equal to multiplying by - two and that LSR is equal to dividing by two. - - - - Transfer Instructions - ===================== - - TAX - Transfer Accumulator to X - TAY - Transfer Accumulator to Y - TXA - Transfer X to accumulator - TYA - Transfer Y to Accumulator - - Transfer instructions move values between the 6502 registers. The N - and Z flags are set if the value being moved warrants it, i.e. - - LDA #$80 - TAX - - causes the N flag to be set since bit 7 of the value moved is 1, while - - LDX #$00 - TXA - - causes the Z flag to be set since the value is zero. - - - - Stack Instructions - ================== - - TSX - Transfer Stack pointer to X - TXS - Transfer X to Stack pointer - - PHA - PusH Accumulator on stack - PHP - PusH Processor status on stack - PLA - PulL Accumulator from stack - PLP - PulL Processor status from stack - - TSX and TXS make manipulating the stack possible. The push and pull - instructions are useful for saving register values and status flags. - Their operation is straightforward. - - - - Subroutine Instructions - ======================= - - JSR - Jump to SubRoutine - RTS - ReTurn from Subroutine - RTI - ReTurn from Interrupt - - Like JMP, JSR causes the program to start execution of the next - instruction at the given address. Unlike JMP, JSR pushes the address - of the next instruction after itself on the stack. When an RTS - instruction is executed the address pushed on the stack is pulled off - the stack and the program resumes at that address. For example, - - LDA #$C1 ; load the character 'A' - JSR print ; print the character and it's hex code - LDA #$C2 ; load 'B' - JSR print ; and print it - . - . - . - print JSR $FDED ; print the letter - JSR $FDDA ; and its ASCII code - RTS ; return to the caller - - RTI is analagous to RTS and should be used to end an interrupt routine. - - - - Set and Reset (Clear) Instructions - ================================== - - CLC - CLear Carry flag - CLD - CLear Decimal mode - CLI - CLear Interrupt disable - CLV - CLear oVerflow flag - - SEC - SEt Carry - SED - SEt Decimal mode - SEI - SEt Interrupt disable - - These are one byte instructions to specify processor status flag - settings. - - CLC and SEC are of particular use in addition and subtraction - respectively. Before any addition (ADC) use CLC to clear the carry - or the result may be one greater than you expect. For subtraction - (SBC) use SEC to ensure that the carry is set as its compliment is - subtracted from the answer. In multi-byte additions or subtractions - only clear or set the carry flag before the initial operation. For - example, to add one to a 16-bit number in $23 and $24 you would write: - - LDA $23 ; get the low byte - CLC ; clear the carry - ADC #$02 ; add a constant 2, carry will be set if result > 255 - STA $23 ; save the low byte - LDA $24 ; get the high byte - ADC #$00 ; add zero to add any carry that might have been set above - STA $24 ; save the high byte - RTS ; if carry set now the result was > 65535 - - Similarly for subtraction, - - LDA $23 ; get the low byte - SEC ; set the carry - SBC #$02 ; subtract 2 - STA $23 ; save the low byte - LDA $24 ; get the high byte - SBC #$00 ; subtract 0 and any borrow generated above - STA $24 ; save the high byte - RTS ; if the carry is not set the result was < 0 - - - - Other Instructions - ================== - - NOP - No OPeration (or is it NO oPeration ? :) - BRK - BReaK - - NOP is just that, no operation. Useful for deleting old - instructions, reserving room for future instructions or for use in - careful timing loops as it uses 2 microprocessor cycles. - - BRK causes a forced break to occur and the processor will immediately - start execution of the routine whose address is in $FFFE and $FFFF. - This address is often the start of a system monitor program. - - - -Some simple programming examples -================================ - - A few simple programming examples are given here. They serve to - illustrate some techniques commonly used in assembly programming. - There are doubtless dozens more and I make no claim at being a - proficient assembly language programmer. For examples of addition - and subtraction see above on CLC and SEC. - - - A count down loop - ----------------- - - ; - ; An 8-bit count down loop - ; - - start LDX #$FF ; load X with $FF = 255 - loop DEX ; X = X - 1 - BNE loop ; if X not zero then goto loop - RTS ; return - - How does the BNE instruction know that X is zero? It - doesn't, all it knows is that the Z flag is set or reset. - The DEX instruction will set the Z flag when X is zero. - - - ; - ; A 16-bit count down loop - ; - - start LDY #$FF ; load Y with $FF - loop1 LDX #$FF ; load X with $FF - loop2 DEX ; X = X - 1 - BNE loop2 ; if X not zero goto loop2 - DEY ; Y = Y - 1 - BNE loop1 ; if Y not zero goto loop1 - RTS ; return - - There are two loops here, X will be set to 255 and count to - zero for each time Y is decremented. The net result is to - count the 16-bit number Y (high) and X (low) down from $FFFF - = 65535 to zero. - - - Other examples - -------------- - - ** Note: All of the following examples are lifted nearly verbatim from - the book "6502 Software Design", whose reference is above. - - - ; Example 4-2. Deleting an entry from an unordered list - ; - ; Delete the contents of $2F from a list whose starting - ; address is in $30 and $31. The first byte of the list - ; is its length. - ; - - deluel LDY #$00 ; fetch element count - LDA ($30),Y - TAX ; transfer length to X - LDA $2F ; item to delete - nextel INY ; index to next element - CMP ($30),Y ; do entry and element match? - BEQ delete ; yes. delete element - DEX ; no. decrement element count - BNE nextel ; any more elements to compare? - RTS ; no. element not in list. done - - ; delete an element by moving the ones below it up one location - - delete DEX ; decrement element count - BEQ deccnt ; end of list? - INY ; no. move next element up - LDA ($30),Y - DEY - STA ($30),Y - INY - JMP delete - deccnt LDA ($30,X) ; update element count of list - SBC #$01 - STA ($30,X) - RTS - - - - - ; Example 5-6. 16-bit by 16-bit unsigned multiply - ; - ; Multiply $22 (low) and $23 (high) by $20 (low) and - ; $21 (high) producing a 32-bit result in $24 (low) to $27 (high) - ; - - mlt16 LDA #$00 ; clear p2 and p3 of product - STA $26 - STA $27 - LDX #$16 ; multiplier bit count = 16 - nxtbt LSR $21 ; shift two-byte multiplier right - ROR $20 - BCC align ; multiplier = 1? - LDA $26 ; yes. fetch p2 - CLC - ADC $22 ; and add m0 to it - STA $26 ; store new p2 - LDA $27 ; fetch p3 - ADC $23 ; and add m1 to it - align ROR A ; rotate four-byte product right - STA $27 ; store new p3 - ROR $26 - ROR $25 - ROR $24 - DEX ; decrement bit count - BNE nxtbt ; loop until 16 bits are done - RTS - - - - ; Example 5-14. Simple 16-bit square root. - ; - ; Returns the 8-bit square root in $20 of the - ; 16-bit number in $20 (low) and $21 (high). The - ; remainder is in location $21. - - sqrt16 LDY #$01 ; lsby of first odd number = 1 - STY $22 - DEY - STY $23 ; msby of first odd number (sqrt = 0) - again SEC - LDA $20 ; save remainder in X register - TAX ; subtract odd lo from integer lo - SBC $22 - STA $20 - LDA $21 ; subtract odd hi from integer hi - SBC $23 - STA $21 ; is subtract result negative? - BCC nomore ; no. increment square root - INY - LDA $22 ; calculate next odd number - ADC #$01 - STA $22 - BCC again - INC $23 - JMP again - nomore STY $20 ; all done, store square root - STX $21 ; and remainder - RTS - - - This is based on the observation that the square root of an - integer is equal to the number of times an increasing odd - number can be subtracted from the original number and remain - positive. For example, - - 25 - - 1 1 - -- - 24 - - 3 2 - -- - 21 - - 5 3 - -- - 16 - - 7 4 - -- - 9 - - 9 5 = square root of 25 - -- - 0 - - -If you are truly interested in learning more, go to your public library -and seek out an Apple machine language programming book. If your public -library is like mine, there will still be plenty of early 80s computer -books on the shelves. :) -</pre> -<hr> -<img src="Assembly%20In%20One%20Step_files/index.html"><br> -Last update: 30-Jan-00<br> -<a href="https://dwheeler.com/6502/oneelkruns/65index.html"><b>Back</b></a> -<!-- text below generated by server. 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